A proton exchange membrane may consist of a hybrid inorganic-organic polymer including metal cations, the metal cations being substantially uniformly distributed through the hybrid inorganic-organic polymer and not present in the form of particles.  “The metal cations are included into the polymer network at the time of formation of the network, through adding metal cations into the medium in which the network is formed. The proton exchange membrane also includes proton donor groups, such as acid groups, bound to the hybrid inorganic-organic network by an interaction with the metal cations. The acid groups may be phosphonic acid groups, and may be part of an acid compound such as a phosphoric acid or derivative thereof. The acid groups may be provided by an acid compound of the form A-L-B, where A is the acid group, L is a linking group or a chemical bond, and B is a terminal group, such as an aromatic heterocycle having at least one heteroatom selected from the group consisting of N, O, and S, or a second acid group.” (Li et al, US Patent 7,811,693, 10/12/2010)

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