The SPE Library contains thousands of papers, presentations, journal briefs and recorded webinars from the best minds in the Plastics Industry. Spanning almost two decades, this collection of published research and development work in polymer science and plastics technology is a wealth of knowledge and information for anyone involved in plastics.
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Various topics related to sustainability in plastics, including bio-related, environmental issues, green, recycling, renewal, re-use and sustainability.
Many consumer products have a complex construction with multiple types of materials. This makes it difficult to recycle the products if the materials are not easily separated. A mixed recycling study was conducted for a particular multi-material product to determine the degree of material segregation required to obtain a recycled feedstock with useful properties. Toothbrushes were selected as the product for this study. These were collected from a commercial take-back program and were separated by material. Different formulations were compounded with virgin material at varying percentages and molded into ASTM test specimens for mechanical property testing.
Rei-ichi Konishi, Kazushi Yamada, Yasuo Hashimoto, Yew Wei Leong, Tetsuya Tsujii, Hiroyuki Hamada, May 2010
In recent years, the development of recycling
methods for waste PET bottles has generated much
interest due to environmental and waste management
concerns. Therefore, in this study, recycled PET
(RPET) was considered instead of PS or PVC to
prepare shrink films for labeling purposes. However,
the labels would still have to be removed from the
bottles prior to recycling due to color incompatibility.
For this reason, the tear properties of the RPET labels,
especially at the heat sealed regions, are elucidated and
correlated to film crystallinity and molecular
orientation.
Rei-ichi Konishi , Kazushi Yamada , Yasuo Hashimoto , Yew Wei Leong, May 2010
In recent years, the development of recycling methods for waste PET bottles has generated much interest due to environmental and waste management concerns. Therefore, in this study, recycled PET (RPET) was considered instead of PS or PVC to prepare shrink films for labeling purposes. However, the labels would still have to be removed from the bottles prior to recycling due to color incompatibility. For this reason, the tear properties of the RPET labels, especially at the heat sealed regions, are elucidated and correlated to film crystallinity and molecular orientation.
Daniel E. Ramírez-Arreola , Guillermo Sandoval-Hernández , Martín Arellano , Cesar Gomez , Rubén González-Núñez , Denis Rodrigue, May 2010
Injected molded nanocomposite blends based on PCL/TPS and Cloisite 15A (C15A) were prepared and its mechanical properties were studied. The injected samples were exposed to the environment in order to analyze the influence of exposure time and moisture uptake over mechanical properties. The results showed that samples tested right after molding exhibit low mechanical resistance to impact and high Young modulus, while increasing the environmental exposure time reduced the Young modulus and substantially increased the medium failure energy. On the other hand, using C15A increases the medium failure energy, and an important interaction between TPS, moisture and clay was observed.
Tomoko Ohta , Yoshihiro Takai , Yew Wei Leong , Asami Nakai , Hiroyuki Hamada , Tsutomu
Nagaoka, May 2010
Bio-composites are generally made from natural fibers as reinforcement and a biodegradable polymer matrix such as poly(lactic acid) or poly(caprolactone).However the mechanical properties of these composites are relatively low. For practical applications glass fibers were added to create hybrid composites. The concept of ƒ??degree of greenƒ? is introduced to identify the true content of biodegradable material in the composite. Three different fiber hybridization methods are proposed i.e.dry blending mixing of pellets and sandwich injection molding. The mechanical properties of these hybrid composites are evaluated and the relation between the properties and degree of green is discussed.
H. Inoya , W. Klinklai , Y. W. Leong , H. Hamada, May 2010
Compatibilization effects on the phase morphology and mechanical properties of post-consumer recycled poly(ethylene terephathalate) (RPET)/ polypropylene (PP) blends were investigated. The blending of RPET and PP (RPET/PP:95/5) was carried out by a singlescrew extrusion process in the presence of various amounts of compatibilizer ranging from 0-35 phr based on the PP content. The compounded materials were injection molded into dumbbell test pieces which were subsequently used for mechanical and morphological characterizations. The addition of compatibilizer of up to 15 phr resulted in a size reduction of the dispersed phase while an apparent increase in density of the blends suggests an improvement in interfacial interaction following the depletion of hollow ligaments between the PP and RPET phases. The changes in morphological structure significantly affect the tensile and impact resistance of the moldings. An elongation at break (EB) of more than 350% could be achieved with the incorporation of just 15 phr of compatibilizer (as compared to <90% EB for un-compatibilized specimens) while significantly better impact performance was observed in all compatibilized specimens.
Nathalie Chapleau , Hongbo Li , Michel A. Huneault, May 2010
The interest for biodegradable and water-soluble packaging films has gained attention as they have a potential in several applications such as pouches for powders and liquids, liners and bags, and medical delivery devices. In this work, starch-based materials are used to produce melt extruded films. Starch is a biopolymer that can be gelatinized to form thermoplastic starch (TPS). The gelatinization is carried out in an extruder by applying shear and heat in presence of plasticizers. The influence of the TPS composition on the final properties of the films will be investigated. The crystalline structure, the mechanical properties and water solubility will be evaluated.
Darin VanDerwalker, Stephen Johnston, Dan Hazen, David Kazmer, May 2010
Micromolding with microscale surface features and thin-wall plates of the quartz glass/polymers composites were performed to fabricate a new micro-fluidic plate with glass. Effects of process parameters on processability
and surface replication of the molded parts were evaluated.
The replication ratio and internal morphology of molded
green and sintered microparts were analyzed using SEM
and a confocal laser scanning microscope. During
sintering processes, the green molded composites shrank
with removal of binder polymer. The internal morphology
affected shrinkage of green molded composites. The
surface replication ratio of molded and sintered parts
showed high values. Sintered molded parts were produced
with a high aspect ratio of 3.4 and 10 ?¬m micro-line width.
Polypropylene (PP)-based sandwich injection moldings containing biodegradable polymers in the core were carried out. Interfacial adhesion between the skin and the core is essential for obtaining sufficient mechanical strength for commercial applications. In order to investigate the interfacial strength between the skin and the core, the ASTM/ISO scratch test was used and critical delamination load for delamination was determined. For comparison, an 180o peel test was also conducted, whereby the skin was peeled off from the core, to measure its adhesive force in a different way. Numerical simulation using FEM was applied to these experiments to study interfacial strength. Destruction of the interfacial layer was defined by either a critical stress or critical strain criterion. The critical strain criterion appears to better describe the phenomenon in these two experiments. FEM simulation could qualitatively correlate with these behaviors, suggesting that delamination could be described as a strain dominant phenomenon.
Françoise Berzin , Ahmed Tara , Bruno Vergnes , Chantal David, May 2010
Starchy products are commonly transformed by twin screw extrusion, either for the manufacturing of food products (extrusion cooking of snacks or breakfast cereals, for example) or for the production of bio-based materials (bioplastics). During the extrusion process, starch is submitted to high shear rates and stresses which lead to a modification of its basic structure. As many properties of the extruded starch are directly connected to the molecular weight and its distribution, it is very important to be able to predict the changes experienced during the extrusion process. In order to model the transformation of starch during twin screw extrusion process, it is thus necessary to take into account the strong coupling between viscosity and thermomechanical treatment. It is the purpose of thepresent work. We have used the software Ludovic was developed ten years ago to calculate the flow of a polymer along a twin screw extruder. We have assumed that the degradation reaction (viscosity decrease) was linked to the specific energy received during the flow. We have compared extrusion cases with and without viscosity/energy coupling and we show that it is important to take it into account in order to correctly predict the parameters of the extrusion process (torque, energy, product temperature') and the starch transformation.??, which
H. Inoya , Y. W. Leong , S. Thumsorn , S. Thitithanasarn , H. Hamada, May 2010
The morphology of RPET and PP pellets has been shown to have a profound effect on the properties of injection moldings. The size of PP dispersed phase is critical as it dictates the ductility of the blend. It has been shown that the size of a dispersed phase could grow by either coalescence or relaxation during and immediately after extrusion where temperatures are high. This study focuses on the chronological development of PP dispersed phase throughout the extrusion line during RPET/PP blending prior to pelletizing. The effect of compatibilizer content will be correlated to the growth rate of PP phase and also on the mechanical properties of subsequent injection moldings.
High density polyethylene (HDPE) is widely used to
fabricate blow molded articles for rigid packaging as well
as for other market segments such as industrial and
chemical containers automotive home and recreation.
The drive to reduce packaging cost as well as minimize
impact on the environment has increased the emphasis on
light weight packaging. A next generation (NG) of HDPE
resins was developed through selective molecular
architecture modification to offer a unique combination
of easy resin processing on existing extrusion blow
molding equipment and a superior balance of physical
properties which allow blow molded articles to be light
weighted. A higher percentage of post consumer recycle
can also be incorporated while meeting the blow molded
article performance requirements.
Bio-derived thermosets were cured from inexpensive,
low-toxicity precursors. Epoxidized linseed oil (ELO) and
epoxidized soybean oil (ESO) were crosslinked with a
range of crosslinking agents: branched polyethyleneimine
(PEI) and triethylenetetramine (TETA). Curing conditions
were optimized through solvent uptake and soluble
fraction analysis. Properties may be varied from
elastomeric to rigid. Rigid bioepoxies, while not as stiff as
conventional materials, are expected to display better
toughness and may be promising for coatings and as
binders in engineered wood products.
Tze-Wei Liu , Satish K. Gaggar , Sushant Agarwal , Adam Al-Mulla , Rakesh K. Gupta, May 2010
Flame retardants (FRs) additives are commonly usedin polymeric materials, with non-halogenated flameretardants being preferred for environmental, health andsafety reasons. However, developing non-halogenated FRsis a challenge for styrenic polymers such as acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene (ABS) since they burn very easily anddo not produce any char. Here, we have developed ahalogen-free flame retardant system for ABS using woodor cellulose as a charring material and ammoniumpolyphosphate (APP) as a catalyst. The use of theseadditives permits compounding and molding of ABS atlow temperatures. The resulting materials can achieve a V-0 or V-1 rating on UL-94 type tests.
In this study, piezoresistive behavior of poly(hydroxybutyrate valerate) (PHBV)/multi-walled carbon nanotoubes (MWCNTs) composite has been discussed. Melt mixing technique was used to achieve maximum possible dispersion of CNTs in polymer matrix, as this process involves very high shear forces during mixing. The prepared composite shows gauge factor value of three which is very close to gauge factor value of conductive metals like copper and aluminum. Quasi-static and time dependent piezoresistance was investigated for the prepared composite. Environmental scanning electron microscopy was performed to observe dispersion of CNT in PHBV matrix.
Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a renewable polymer with many unique features including compostability. However, PLA suffers from several performance deficiencies which limit its market potential. A key deficiency is its ability to withstand elevated use temperatures above 55 ?§C. PolyOneƒ??s objective was to explore a range of approaches to identify a practical path to improved heat performance while seeking to maximize renewable content and processability. This paper addresses the industry need for a high renewable content polymer with practical heat resistance without relying on any additional thermal treatments such as annealing. Various PLA-based compounds were prepared and screened using DMA in an effort to correlate results to the heat distortion temperature (HDT) exhibited by injection molded PLA. It was concluded that polymer blends offered the greatest commercial viability of all the approaches considered under normal injection molding conditions. Multi-phase compatible polymer blends were found to have the most significant impact on blend properties. All components of the preferred blend composition are commercially available today. Heat performance can be tailored based upon performance requirements and bio-content objectives. The PLA content of the blends studied varied from 72% to 35%, while the corresponding HDT (under 0.455 MPa load) ranges from 57 ?§C to 101 ?§C. Potential increased bio-derived contents are also considered.
Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a renewable polymer with
many unique features including compostability. However
PLA suffers from several performance deficiencies which
limit its market potential. A key deficiency is its ability to
withstand elevated use temperatures above 55C.
PolyOne’s objective was to explore a range of approaches
to identify a practical path to improved heat performance
while seeking to maximize renewable content and
processability. This paper addresses the industry need for
a high renewable content polymer with practical heat
resistance without relying on any additional thermal
treatments such as annealing. Various PLA-based
compounds were prepared and screened using DMA in an
effort to correlate results to the heat distortion temperature
(HDT) exhibited by injection molded PLA. It was
concluded that polymer blends offered the greatest
commercial viability of all the approaches considered
under normal injection molding conditions. Multi-phase
compatible polymer blends were found to have the most
significant impact on blend properties. All components of
the preferred blend composition are commercially
available today. Heat performance can be tailored based
upon performance requirements and bio-content
objectives. The PLA content of the blends studied varied
from 72% to 35% while the corresponding HDT (under
0.455 MPa load) ranges from 57 ºC to 101 ºC. Potential
increased bio-derived contents are also considered.
Yong Min, Bin Zhu, Cailiang Zhang, L. James Lee, May 2010
Polyaniline-clay (PANI-MMT) nanocomposites were synthesized through in-situ polymerization of polyaniline with various dopants. Those nanocomposites were used to blend with polystyrene (PS) to form an expandable composite resin, which will significantly impact the foaming process using a CO2 blowing agent. The material composition and foam morphologies were characterized through various analytical techniques, such as, X-Ray diffraction (XRD), SEM, dielectric measurement, UV/vis, and FTIR. Based on our experimental results, we are proposing that the de-doped base form" of Pani-MMT nanocomposites and both "inorganic and organic salt-form" Pani-MMT nanocomposites will act as a "molecular CO2 reservoir" to control the CO2 releasing during the foaming. The selection and optimization on those compounds will be enormously important for developing a new inexpensive and environmental friendly blowing agent for the foam industry to achieve the final goal of replacing the existing CFCs /HCFCs /HFCs blowing agents!"
Siqiang Zhu , Rahul Rasal , Douglas Hirt, May 2010
The major objective of this research was poly(lactide) (PLA) toughening using two impact modifiers (IMs). IM1 was derived from biodegradable resource and IM2 was non-degradable ethylene-acrylate copolymer. Blend films were prepared using a single screw extruder, and their mechanical properties were measured using tensile testing. Results showed that the Young's modulus did not change significantly with increasing concentration of IM1, but decreased with IM2 concentration. The maximum elongation at break was 240% for IM1 at 8 wt% loading and 255% for IM2 at 12 wt% loading. Clarity of the films decreased with higher additive concentrations for both IMs, but IM1 gave clearer film than IM2 for given composition. AFM images showed IM1 dispersed in PLA as isolated islands at lower compositions and transitioned to short threads at higher compositions; IM2 existed mostly as islands. Annealing of the films at 100 ?§C for 1 h increased the percent crystallinity, but did not affect the mechanical properties significantly.
This work studied bio-plastics such as polylactic acid
(PLA) and protein based plastics form corn and compared
to petroleum based plastics such polyethylene (PE) and
polystyrene in terms of their ecological as well as
economical performance from a “Cradle to Grave”
perspective. This study included energy input emissions
output of green house gases and costs from their life cycle
steps of raw material acquisition to the final product
disposal. It was found that products manufactured from
bio-based feedstocks were relatively higher in cost they
resulted in less green house gas emissions.
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Any article that is cited in another manuscript or other work is required to use the correct reference style. Below is an example of the reference style for SPE articles:
Brown, H. L. and Jones, D. H. 2016, May.
"Insert title of paper here in quotes,"
ANTEC 2016 - Indianapolis, Indiana, USA May 23-25, 2016. [On-line].
Society of Plastics Engineers
Available: www.4spe.org.
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